IC Electronics

What are Integrated circuits:

Integrated circuit (IC), also known as microelectronic circuit, microchip, or chip, is an assembly of electronic components fabricated as a single unit, in which miniaturized active devices (such as transistors and diodes) and passive devices (such as capacitors and resistors), as well as their interconnections, are built up on a thin semiconductor substrate (typically silicon).

The outcome is a compact monolithic "chip" that might be as small as a few square centimeters or as little as a few square millimeters. The size of the individual circuit components is usually tiny.

History:

The transistor was invented in 1947 by William B. Shockley and his colleagues at the American Telephone and Telegraph Company's Bell Laboratories, and integrated circuits were born. Shockley's team (which included John Bardeen and Walter H. Brattain) discovered that under the correct conditions, electrons create a barrier at the surface of particular crystals, and that managing this barrier allowed them to regulate the flow of electricity through the crystal.

The team was able to construct a device that could perform electrical operations previously performed by vacuum tubes, such as signal amplification, by controlling electron flow via a crystal.

This device was given the term transistor, which is a combination of the words "transfer" and "resistor." Solid-state electronics is the study of ways for making electrical devices out of solid materials. Solid-state devices proven to be far more durable, easier to work with, more dependable, smaller, and cheaper than vacuum tubes. Engineers quickly learned how to make other electrical components like resistors and capacitors using the same ideas and materials.

Because electrical components could now be produced so small, the most difficult aspect of a circuit was the wire connecting them.

Types of basic integrated circuits

Analog circuits:

Analog, or linear, circuits contain only a few components and are thus among the most basic forms of integrated circuits. Analog circuits are typically coupled to devices that gather signals from the environment or send signals back to it.

A microphone, for example, translates different vocal sounds into an electrical signal with varied voltage. The signal is then modified in some helpful way by an analogue circuit, such as by amplifying it or filtering out unwanted noise. A signal like this might then be sent to a loudspeaker, which would then duplicate the tones picked up by the microphone.

Digital circuits:

A digital circuit, on the other hand, is intended to only receive voltages of a specified range. The term "binary circuit" refers to a circuit that has only two states. The logic of Boolean algebra is used to construct circuits using binary numbers, with "on" and "off" signifying 1 and 0 (i.e., true and false). (Boolean algebra is used to accomplish arithmetic in the binary number system.) To accomplish the needed functions, these basic parts are merged in the design of ICs for digital computers and associated devices.

Microprocessor circuits:

Microprocessors are the most difficult ICs to design. They are made up of billions of transistors that have been configured into thousands of discrete digital circuits, each performing a different logic function. A microprocessor is made up completely of these synchronized logic circuits. The central processing unit (CPU) of a computer is usually found in microprocessors.

Registers, which are circuits that store data, are found in microprocessors. Predetermined memory addresses are called registers. Each CPU has multiple different types of registers. Permanent registers store the preprogrammed instructions required for various processes (such as addition and multiplication). Temporary registers maintain track of both the numbers to be processed and the results.

Microprocessors contain registers, which are data-storage circuits. Registers are predetermined memory addresses. A CPU's registers come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Permanent registers are used to store preprogrammed instructions for a variety of processes (such as addition and multiplication). Temporary registers keep track of the numbers that need to be processed as well as the results.

Memory circuits:

Microprocessors must often store more data than a few registers can hold. This additional data is stored in specialized memory circuits. Memory is made up of dense arrays of parallel circuits that store data using their voltage states. The microprocessor's temporary sequence of instructions, or program, is also stored in memory.

Manufacturers are constantly working to shrink memory circuits in order to boost capability without taking up more space. Smaller components also consume less energy, work more efficiently, and are less expensive to produce.

Application-specific integrated circuits:

An application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) can be either digital or analogue. ASICs are not reconfigurable, as their name implies, and they only execute one function. A speed controller IC for a remote-control automobile, for example, is hard-wired to do a single task and could never become a microprocessor. The capacity to follow alternate instructions is not present in an ASIC.

Designing ICs:

The basic principles of voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) are used by all ICs (R). Many circuit design decisions are influenced by equations based on Ohm's law, V = IR. Design engineers must also be knowledgeable about the characteristics of various electronic components used in diverse applications.

Fabricating ICs:

These circuits are fabricated by

·Making a base wafer

· Building layers

Layers are built by deposition.

Deposition:

A thin layer of some substance is placed onto the wafer via a chemical or physical reaction in a process known as film deposition.

The final product:

The thousands of individual IC units are sliced apart when all of the alterations to the wafer have been performed. This is referred to as wafer dicing. Each integrated circuit is now referred to as a die. Die pictures mimic satellite images of cities, including circuits that resemble highways.

Each die that passes the test is packaged in durable plastic. When gazing at a computer's circuit board, these plastic containers known as chips are visible. Metal connection pins in the plastic packages connect the outside world (such as a computer board) to the die's correct contact points through holes in the passivation layer.